Buhen (Ancient Greek: Βοὥν Bohón) was an ancient Egyptian settlement situated on the West bank of the Nile below (to the north of) the Second Cataract in what is now Northern State, Sudan. It is currently submerged in Lake Nasser, Sudan. On the East bank, across the river, there was another ancient settlement where the town of Wadi Halfa now stands. The earliest mention of Buhen comes from stelae dating to the reign of Senusret I. Buhen is also the earliest known Egyptian settlement in Nubia.
Location of Buhen
Old Kingdom
In the Old Kingdom (about 2686–2181 BCE), an Egyptian colonial town at Buhen was also used for copper working. This was surrounded by a massive though crude stone wall. Further evidence points to the colony having been supplied from the north. The settlement may have been established during the reign of Sneferu (4th Dynasty). Nevertheless, there is evidence of the earlier 2nd Dynasty occupation at Buhen.
An archaeological investigation in 1962 revealed what was described as an ancient copper factory.
Graffiti and other inscribed items from the site show that the Egyptians stayed about 200 years until late in the 5th Dynasty when they were probably forced out by immigration from the south.
Fortress of Buhen
Buhen is known for its large fortress, probably constructed during the rule of Senusret III in around 1860 BCE (12th Dynasty). Senusret III conducted four campaigns into Kush and established a line of forts within signalling distance of one another; Buhen was the northernmost of these. The other fortifications along the banks were Mirgissa, Shalfak, Uronarti, Askut, Dabenarti, Semna, and Kumma. The Kushites captured Buhen during the 13th Dynasty and held it until pharaoh Ahmose I recaptured it at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. Indigenous forces stormed and recaptured it at the end of Egypt’s 20th Dynasty.
The fortress itself extended more than 150 metres (490 ft) along the west bank of the Nile. It covered 13,000 square metres (140,000 sq ft) and had a small town in a grid system within its wall. At its peak, it probably had a population of around 3,500 people. The fortress also included the administration for the whole fortified region of the Second Cataract. Its fortifications included a three-meter-death moat, drawbridges, bastions, buttresses, ramparts, battlements, loopholes, and a catapult. The outer wall had an area between the two walls pierced with a double row of arrow loops, allowing both standing and kneeling archers to fire simultaneously. The fort’s walls were about 5 metres (16 ft) thick and 10 metres (33 ft) high. The walls of Buhen were crafted with rough stone.
The walls of Buhen are unique, as most Egyptian fortress walls were constructed with timber and mud brick. The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under Lake Nasser as a result of the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1964. Before the site was covered with water, it was excavated by a team led by Walter Bryan Emery.
Buhen had a temple of Horus built by Hatshepsut, which was moved to the National Museum of Sudan in Khartoum before the flooding of Lake Nasser.
Copper work at Buhen
In 1962, an archaeological expedition to Buhen revealed a copper factory. An unknown ore was found and analyzed further during the excavation using modern techniques. The ore was made of malachite but has become atacamite mixed with gold. With many factors going into a location being adequate for copper smelting, Buhen would have been an ideal location to produce small quantities of copper. An Egyptian device called “Fire Dogs” was used to prepare food. The exact usage of a fire dog is not known. However, there is evidence that fire dogs are involved in fire and burning. Many fire dogs were found in Buhen; this discovery has been associated with the potential generation of copper by using fire dogs.
Specific resources were necessary for copper to be smelted in an area, and the availability of these resources determined if a site was suitable for copper smelting. These resources included human labour, water, clay, wood, a mineral-based flux, and large quantities of ore. The mineral-based change would be used to produce fluid slag during smelting. Buhen’s geographical location during the time of the Old Kingdom would have met all of the requirements for a successful copper smelting location. Buhen is close to the Nile River, which would have provided the necessary supply of water and clay.
With Egypt having many skilled workers, many essential skilled workers could have been brought to Buhen. Although there is not much evidence of good timber, during the Old Kingdom, a higher level of rainfall would have resulted in a more extensive availability of wood along the Nile and Wadis. The slags from the factory contain iron, indicative of a ferruginous flux. This specific flux requires iron oxide, abundant throughout the Nile valley.
Despite evidence for the majority of the requirements, little is known about the source of the copper that would have been used for smelting. All copper deposits recorded in Egypt and Northern Sudan are long from Buhen. These deposits are also located on the eastern side of the Nile, which poses further complications in transporting the copper that would have been smelted as it would have had to cross the Nile.
