The civilization of ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river’s predictability and fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire based on great agricultural wealth. Egyptians are credited as being one of the first groups of people to practice Ancient Egyptian agriculture on a large scale. This was possible because of the Egyptians’ ingenuity in developing basin irrigation. Their farming allowed them to grow staple food crops, especially grains such as wheat and barley, and industrial crops, such as flax and papyrus.
Beginnings of Ancient Egyptian Agriculture
To the west of the Nile valley, the eastern Sahara was the home of several Neolithic cultures. This area had rich vegetation during the humid African period, and the human population in the Sahara had increased considerably by about 8000 BC. They lived by hunting and fishing in the local lakes and gathering abundant wild cereals, such as brachiaria, sorghum, and urochloa, which were essential food sources.
The humid African period was gradually ending about 6,000–5,000 years ago. Before that time, the migrating herders were going to other parts of Africa and coming west to the Nile Delta, where there were relatively few indications of agriculture before that.
Shreds of evidence
Dakhleh Oasis
Dakhleh Oasis, in particular, has been the subject of considerable recent research, and it supplies essential evidence for early Egyptian agriculture. It could be considered typical of post-Pleistocene developments in Northeastern Africa in general.
Dakhleh Oasis
Dakhleh Oasis is located in the Western Desert (Egypt). It lies 350 km (220 mi.) from the Nile between the oases of Farafra and Kharga. In Dakhleh, the Bashendi culture people were mobile herder-foragers during the humid African period. They lived in slab-built settlement sites and open-air sites consisting of clusters of hearth mounds. In the Western Desert of Egypt, Bashendi-like groups have also inhabited the Farafra Oasis and Nabta Playa to the south. The Bashendi used sandstone grinders to grind local wild millet and sorghum.
At Farafra Oasis, a goat dated around 6100 BC (8100 cal BP) was found in the Hidden Valley village. At Nabta Playa, sheep/goats and cattle remains are present beginning about 6000 BC (8000 cal BP). Yet goats and cattle are almost the only Neolithic elements from the Near East that the oasis dwellers accepted. Other cultural developments, such as the lithic industry, originated locally or within Northeastern Africa.
Faiyum Oasis
Faiyum Oasis of Egypt also provides evidence for agriculture from about the same period. Domesticated sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle are here. Sheep at the site of Qasr El-Sagha is dated at 5350 BC (7350 cal BP), and sheep, goats, and cattle are at 5150 BC (7150 cal BP).
As for crops, emmer wheat and barley are found in the Faiyum at Kom K and Kom W sites, dated ca. 4500-4200 BC. Plentiful pottery is located at these sites, but there is little evidence of permanent structures being built.
The Merimde culture dates from around 4800 to 4300 BC. These people came to develop an entirely agricultural economy. Also, the Merimde Beni Salama site, about 15 miles northwest of Cairo, is believed to be the earliest permanently occupied town in Egypt.
Merimde culture overlapped in time with the Faiyum A culture and the Badari culture in Upper Egypt, which is later dated. These were all agricultural cultures.
Donkey domestication
Scholars believe that the donkey (Equus asinus) was domesticated on the African continent, possibly in the Nile valley. The predynastic site of El Omari has the earliest domesticated donkey in Egypt, dated 4800–4500 BC (6800–6500 years BP). The area of Maadi comes next (4500-4000 BC).
At Abydos, Egypt, in the Nile Valley, archaeological remains of 5000-year-old domestic donkeys have been found in the pharaonic mortuary complex. Osteological lesions typical of load-carrying indicate that donkeys might have been domesticated in this area. Alternatively, it has been proposed that domestication occurred among the pastoralists of the Horn of Africa or in Yemen. This may have been prompted by the increasing aridity of the Sahara starting at 7000 BP.
Also, the spread of donkeys was probably connected to the increased long-distance trade and the need for pack animals.
Farming Systems of Ancient Egyptian Agriculture
The Nile Role
The civilization of ancient Egypt developed in the arid climate of northern Africa. The Arabian and Libyan deserts and the River Nile distinguish this region. The Nile is the longest river in the world, flowing northward from Lake Victoria and eventually emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile has two main tributaries: the Blue Nile, which originates in Ethiopia, and the White Nile, which flows from Uganda. While the White Nile is longer and more straightforward to traverse, the Blue Nile carries about two-thirds of the river’s water volume. The names of the tributaries derive from the colour of the water they have. The feeders unite in Khartoum and branch again when it reaches Egypt, forming the Nile Delta.
Field planting
The Egyptians took advantage of the natural cyclical flooding pattern of the Nile. The river’s water levels would rise in August and September, leaving the floodplain and delta submerged by 1.5 meters of water at the peak of the flooding. This yearly flooding of the river is known as inundation. Because this flooding reasonably happened, the Egyptians could develop their agricultural practices around it. As the floodwaters receded in October, farmers were left with well-watered and fertile soil to plant their crops. The soil left behind by the flooding is known as silt and was brought from the Ethiopian Highlands by the Nile.
While the flooding of the Nile was much more predictable and calm than other rivers, such as the Tigris and Euphrates, it was not always perfect. High floodwaters were destructive and could destroy canals that were made for irrigation. Planting took place in October once the flooding was over, and crops were left to grow with minimal care until they ripened between March and May. The lack of flooding created a potentially more significant issue, leaving Egyptians suffering from famine.
Irrigation systems
To make the best use of the waters of the Nile River, the Egyptians developed irrigation systems. Irrigation allowed the Egyptians to use the Nile’s waters for various purposes. Notably, irrigation granted them greater control over their agricultural practices. Floodwaters were diverted from certain areas, such as cities and gardens, to keep them from flooding. Irrigation was also used to provide drinking water to Egyptians. Even though irrigation was crucial to their agricultural success, no statewide water control regulations existed. Instead, irrigation was the responsibility of local farmers. However, the earliest and most famous reference to irrigation in Egyptian archaeology has been found on the Scorpion King’s mace head, roughly dated to about 3100 BC. The mace head depicts the king cutting into a ditch that is part of a grid of basin irrigation. The high-ranking king’s association with irrigation highlights the importance of irrigation in Egypt.
Basin irrigation
Egyptians developed and utilized a form of water management known as basin irrigation. This practice allowed them to control the rise and fall of the river to suit their agricultural needs best. A crisscross network of earthen walls was formed in a field of crops that the river would flood. When the floods came, the water would be trapped in the basins formed by the walls. This grid would hold moisture longer than it naturally stayed, allowing the earth to become fully saturated for later planting. Once the soil was thoroughly watered, the floodwater in the basin would be drained to another basin that needed more water.
Horticulture
Orchards and gardens were also developed in addition to field planting in the floodplains. These gardens and orchards were used to grow vegetables, vines and fruit trees. This horticulture naturally took place further from the floodplain of the Nile, and as a result, it required much more work. The perennial irrigation required by gardens forced growers to manually carry water from either a well or the Nile to water their garden crops. Additionally, while the Nile brought silt, which naturally fertilized the valley, gardens had to be fertilized with pigeon manure.
Crops grown
Food crops
The Egyptians grew various crops for consumption, including grains, vegetables and fruits. However, their diets revolved around several staple crops, especially cereals and barley. Root crops, such as onions, garlic and radishes, and salad crops, such as lettuce and parsley, were grown. Other major grains grown included Einkorn wheat and emmer wheat, which were developed to make bread. For most of the population, other staples were beans, lentils, chickpeas and fava beans.
Fruits were a common motif of Egyptian artwork, suggesting that their growth was also a significant focus of agricultural efforts as the civilization’s agricultural technology developed. Unlike cereals and pulses, fruit required more demanding and complex agricultural techniques, including irrigation systems, cloning, propagation and training. While the first fruits cultivated by the Egyptians were likely indigenous, such as the palm date and sorghum, more fruits were introduced as other cultural influences were introduced. Grapes and watermelon were found throughout predynastic Egyptian sites, as were the sycamore fig, dom palm and Christ’s thorn. The carob, olive, apple and pomegranate were introduced to Egyptians during the New Kingdom. Later, during the Greco-Roman period, peaches and pears were also introduced.
Industrial and fibre crops
Egyptians relied on agriculture for more than just the production of food. They were creative in using plants for medicine as part of their religious practices and clothing production. Herbs had the most varied purposes; they were used in cooking, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and embalming. Over 2000 species of flowering or aromatic plants have been found in tombs. Papyrus was an extremely versatile crop that grew wild and was also cultivated. The plant’s roots were eaten as food but primarily used as an industrial crop. The plant’s stem made boats, mats, and paper. Flax was another important industrial crop that had several uses. Its primary use was in producing rope and linen, the Egyptians’ principal material for making their clothing. Henna was grown for the production of dye.
Livestock
Cattle
Ancient Egyptian cattle were of four principal types: long-horned, short-horned, polled and zebuine. The earliest evidence of cattle in Egypt is from the Faiyum region, dating back to the fifth millennium BC. In the New Kingdom, hump-backed zebuine cattle from Syria were introduced to Egypt and replaced earlier types.
Chickens
Manufactured incubators, called Egyptian egg ovens, dated back to the 4th century BC and were used to mass-produce chickens.
Religion and agriculture
In ancient Egypt, religion was an essential aspect of daily life. Many Egyptians’ religious observances were centred on their observations of the environment, the Nile, and agriculture. They used religion as a way to explain natural phenomena, such as the cyclical flooding of the Nile and agricultural yields.
The term “Nile” is not of Egyptian origin. Although the Nile was directly responsible for either good or bad fortune experienced by the Egyptians, they did not worship the Nile itself. Instead, they thanked specific gods for any good luck. They did not have a name for the river and referred to it as “River”.
Gods
The Egyptians personified the inundation with the creation of the god called Hapi. Even though inundation was crucial to their survival, Hapi was not considered a major god. He was depicted as a higher-weight figure who ironically offered pharaohs water and other abundance products. A temple was never built specifically for Hapi, but he was worshipped as inundation began by making sacrifices and singing hymns.
The god Osiris was also closely associated with the Nile and the fertility of the land. During inundation festivals, mud figures of Osiris were planted with barley.
