The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XXV, alternatively 25th Dynasty or Dynasty 25), also known as the Nubian Dynasty, the Kushite Empire, the Black Pharaohs, or the Napatans after their capital Napata, was the last Dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Nubian invasion.
The 25th Dynasty was a line of pharaohs in the Kingdom of Kush in present-day northern Sudan and Upper Egypt. They reigned in part or all of Ancient Egypt for nearly a century, from 744 to 656 BC. Most of this Dynasty’s kings saw Napata as their spiritual homeland.
The 25th Dynasty was highly Egyptianized, using the Egyptian language and writing system as their record medium and exhibiting an unusual devotion to Egypt’s religious, artistic, and literary traditions. Earlier scholars have ascribed the Dynasty’s origins to immigrants from Egypt, particularly the Egyptian Amun priests. The 3rd intermediate period Egyptian stimulus view is still maintained by prominent scholars, especially since excavations from the el-Kurru cemetery, the essential site to the origin of the Napata state, show sudden Egyptian arrivals and influence during the 3rd intermediate period concurrent with the Egyptianization process.
The 25th Dynasty’s reunification of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Kush created the most prominent Egyptian empire since the New Kingdom. They assimilated into society by reaffirming Ancient Egyptian religious traditions, temples, and artistic forms while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture. During the 25th Dynasty, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in what is now Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.
After the emperors Sargon II and Sennacherib defeated attempts by the Nubian kings to gain a foothold in the Near East, their successors Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal invaded, conquered and drove out the Nubians in the Assyrian conquest of Egypt. War with Assyria resulted in the end of Kushite power in Northern Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty succeeded them, initially a puppet dynasty installed by vassals of the Assyrians, the last native Dynasty to rule Egypt before the Achaemenid Empire invaded them. The fall of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty also marks the beginning of the Late Period of ancient Egypt.
History of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt
Piye Period
The twenty-fifth Dynasty originated in Kush, which is presently in Northern Sudan. The city-state of Napata was the spiritual capital, and it was from there that Piye (spelt Piankhi or Piankhy in older works) invaded and took control of Egypt. Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic-filled stele called the “Stele of Victory.” The stele announces Piye as Pharaoh of all Egypt and highlights his divine kingship by naming him “Son of Re” (Ruler of Lower Egypt) and “Beloved of Amun” (Ruler of Upper Egypt).
Piye’s success in achieving the double kingship after generations of Kushite planning resulted from “Kushite ambition, political skill, and the Theban decision to reunify Egypt in this particular way”, and not Egypt’s utter exhaustion, “as frequently suggested in Egyptological studies.” Piye revived one of the most significant features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms: pyramid construction. An energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the royal burial site of El-Kurru. He also expanded the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal by adding “an immense collonaded forecourt.”
Piye attempted to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East, then controlled Mesopotamia by the Semitic Neo-Assyrian Empire. In 720 BC, he sent an army supporting a rebellion against Assyria in Philistia and Gaza. However, Sargon II defeated Piye, and the uprising failed. Although Manetho does not mention the first king, Piye, mainstream Egyptologists consider him the first Pharaoh of the 25th Dynasty. Manetho also does not mention the last king, Tantamani, although inscriptions attest to Piye’s and Tantamani’s existence.
The “Stele of Victory” inscription describes Piye as very religious, compassionate, and a lover of horses. Piye scolded those who abused horses, demanded horses as gifts, and had eight of his horses buried with him. Better horses, chariots, and the development of cavalry tactics helped Piye to defeat Tefnakht and his allies. Studies of horse skeletons at el Kurru, textual evidence, and iconographical evidence related to the use of horses in Kushite warfare indicate that “the finest horses used in Egypt and Assyria were bred in and exported from Nubia.”
Shabaka and Shebitku Chronology Dispute
Although the Manethonic and classical traditions maintain that Shabaka‘s invasion brought Egypt under Kushite rule, the most recent archaeological evidence shows that Shabaka ruled Egypt after Shebitku and not before, as previously thought. The confusion may stem from Shabaka‘s accession via Kushite collateral succession versus Egyptian patrilinear succession. The construction of the tomb of Shebitku (Ku. 18) resembles that of Piye (Ku. 17) while that of Shabaka (Ku. 15) is similar to that of Taharqa (Nu. 1) and Tantamani (Ku. 16) [39 – D. Dunham, El-Kurru, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, I, (1950) 55, 60, 64, 67; also D. Dunham, Nuri, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, II, (1955) 6–7; J. Lull, Las tumbas reales egipcias del Tercer Periodo Intermedio (dinastías XXI-XXV). Tradición y cambios, BAR-IS 1045 (2002) 208.
Secondly, Payraudeau notes in French that “the Divine Adoratrix Shepenupet I, the last Libyan Adoratrix, was still alive during the reign of Shebitku because she is represented performing rites and is described as “living” in those parts of the Osiris-Héqadjet chapel built during his reign (wall and exterior of the gate) [45 – G. Legrain, “Le temple et Les chapelles d’Osiris à Karnak. Le temple d’Osiris-Hiq-Djeto, partie éthiopienne”, RecTrav 22 (1900) 128; JWIS III, 45. Amenirdis I (Shabaka’s sister) is in the rest of the room, represented with the Adoratrix title, and provided with a coronation name.
The succession of Shepenupet I – Amenirdis I thus took place during the reign of Shebitku/Shabataqo. This detail is sufficient to show that the power of Shabaka cannot precede that of Shebitku/Shabataqo. Finally, Gerard Broekman’s GM 251 (2017) paper shows that Shebitku reigned before Shabaka at the upper edge of Shabaka’s NLR #30’s Year 2 Karnak quay inscription was carved over the left-hand side of the lower edge of Shebitku’s NLR#33 Year 3 inscription. This can only mean that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku.
Shebitku Period
According to the newer chronology, Shebitku conquered the entire Nile Valley, including Upper and Lower Egypt, around 712 BC. Shebitku had Bocchoris of the preceding Sais dynasty burned to death for resisting him. After conquering Lower Egypt, Shebitku transferred the capital to Memphis. Dan’el Kahn suggested that Shebitku was king of Egypt by 707/706 BC. This is based on evidence from an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon II, found in Persia (then a colony of Assyria) and dated to 706 BC. This inscription calls Shebitku the king of Meluhha and states that he sent back to Assyria a rebel named Iamani in handcuffs. Many Egyptologists have widely accepted Kahn’s arguments, including Rolf Krauss, Aidan Dodson and other scholars at the SCIEM 2000 (Synchronisation of Civilisations of the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC) project, with the notable exception of Kenneth Kitchen and Manfred Bietak at present.
Shabaka Period
There is no direct evidence that Shabaqo butchered Bakenranef, and although earlier scholarship generally accepted the tradition, it has recently been treated more sceptically. According to the traditional chronology, Shabaka “brought the entire Nile Valley as far as the Delta under the empire of Kush and is ‘reputed’ to have had Bocchoris, dynast of Sais, burnt to death.” Initially, Shabaka maintained good relations with Assyria, as shown by his extradition of the rebel, Iamani of Ashdod, to Assyria in 712 BC. Shabaka supported an uprising against the Assyrians in the Philistine city of Ashdod. However, he and his allies were defeated by Sargon II.
Shabaka ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt’s holy places. Shabaka “transferred the capital to Memphis“ and restored the massive Egyptian monuments and temples, “unlike his Libyan predecessors”. Pharaoh Shabaka also returned Egypt to a theocratic monarchy by becoming the first priest of Amon. In addition, Shabaka is known for creating a well-preserved example of Memphite theology by inscribing an old religious papyrus into the Shabaka Stone.
Taharqa Period
In 690 BC, Taharqa was crowned in Memphis and ruled Upper and Lower Egypt as Pharaoh from Tanis in the Delta. Taharqa’s reign was a prosperous time in the empire with a vast Nile river flood and abundant crops and wine. Taharqa’s inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of Amun at Kawa. He restored and constructed great works throughout the Nile Valley, including at Jebel Barkal, Kawa (with Lebanese cedar), Qasr Ibrim, and Karnak. “Thebes was enriched on a monumental scale.”
At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the first court kiosk, and the temple entrance colonnades are owed to Taharqa and Mentuemhet. Taharqa and the Kushites marked a renaissance in Pharaonic art. Taharqa built the largest pyramid (52 square meters at base) in the Nubian region at Nuri (near El-Kurru) with the most elaborate Kushite rock-cut tomb. Pharaoh Taharqa was buried with “over 1070 shabtis of varying sizes and made of granite, green ankerite, and alabaster.”
Taharqa‘s army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the “list of conquered Asiatic principalities” from the Mut temple at Karnak and “conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)” from the Sanam temple inscriptions. Imperial ambitions of the Mesopotamian-based Assyrian Empire made war with the 25th Dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9). There are various theories (Taharqa’s army, disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah’s surrender) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city and withdrew to Assyria.
Torok mentions that Egypt’s army “was beaten at Eltekeh” under Taharqa’s command, but “the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom” since Assyria did not take Jerusalem and “retreated to Assyria.” Many historians claim that Sennacherib was the overlord of Khor following the siege in 701 BC.
Sennacherib’s annals record that Judah was forced into tribute after the blockade. However, this is contradicted by Khor’s frequent utilisation of an Egyptian system of weights for trade, the 20-year cessation in Assyria’s pattern (before 701 and after Sennacherib’s death) of repeatedly invading Khor, Khor paying tribute to Amun of Karnak in the first half of Taharqa’s reign, and Taharqa flouting Assyria’s ban on Lebanese cedar exports to Egypt, while Taharqa was building his temple to Amun at Kawa. Sennacherib was murdered by his sons in revenge for the destruction of the rebellious Mesopotamian city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included.
In 679 BC, Sennacherib’s successor, King Esarhaddon, campaigned into Khor and took a town loyal to Egypt. After destroying Sidon and forcing Tyre into tribute in 677-676 BC, Esarhaddon invaded Egypt in 674 BC. According to Babylonian records, Taharqa and his army defeated the Assyrians outright in 674 BC. Taharqa‘s Egypt still held sway in Khor during this period, as evidenced by Esarhaddon’s 671 BC annal mentioning that Tyre’s King Ba’lu had “put his trust upon his friend Taharqa”, Ashkelon’s alliance with Egypt, and Esarhaddon’s inscription asking “if the Egyptian forces will defeat Esarhaddon at Ashkelon.”
However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BC when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, imposed tribute, and withdrew. In 669 BC, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis and the Delta and recommenced intrigues with the king of Tyre. Esarhaddon again led his army to Egypt, and on his death, the command passed to Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established.” Taharqa retreated to Nubia, where he died in 664 BC.
Taharqa remains an important historical figure in Sudan and elsewhere, as is evidenced by Will Smith’s recent project to depict Taharqa in a major motion picture. As of 2017, the status of this project is unknown.
A study of the sphinx created to represent Taharqa indicates that he was a Kushite pharaoh from Nubia.
Tantamani Period
Taharqa‘s successor, Tantamani, sailed north from Napata, through Elephantine, and to Thebes with a large army to Thebes, where he was “ritually installed as the king of Egypt”. Tantamani began his reconquest from Thebes and regained control of Egypt as far north as Memphis. Tantamani’s dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos where royal temples and cults were not maintained. After defeating Sais and killing Assyria’s vassal, Necho I, in Memphis, “some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses.” Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and besieged cities in the Delta, several of which surrendered to him.
Necho’s son Psamtik I fled Egypt to Assyria and returned in 664 BC with Ashurbanipal and a large army comprising Carian mercenaries. Upon the Assyrians’ arrival in Egypt, Tantamani fled to Thebes, where the Assyrians pursued him. Then, Tantamani escaped to Nubia, and the Assyrian army sacked Thebes “and devastated the area” in 663 BC; Psamtik I was placed on the throne of Lower Egypt as a vassal of Ashurbanipal. Psamtik quickly unified Lower Egypt and expelled the Assyrian army, becoming the first ruler of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. In 656 BC, Psamtik sent a large fleet southwards to Thebes, peacefully taking control of the still rebellious Upper Egypt, thereby unifying all of Egypt.
Tantamani and the Nubians never again posed a threat to either Assyria or Egypt. Upon his death, Tantamani was buried in the royal cemetery of El-Kurru, upstream from the Kushite capital of Napata. King Atlanersa, the son of Taharqa, succeeded him. The Twenty-fifth Dynasty ruled Egypt for less than one hundred years. The successors of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty settled back in their Nubian homeland, where they continued their kingdom at Napata (656–590 BC) and continued to make empty claims to Egyptian kingship during the next 60 years, while the effective control of Egypt was in the hands of Psamtik I and his successors. The Kushite next ruled further south at Meroë (590 BC – 4th century AD).
Revenge of Psamtik II
Psamtik II, the third ruler of the following Dynasty, the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, deliberately destroyed monuments belonging to the 25th Dynasty of Kushite kings in Egypt, erasing their names and emblems of royalty from statues and reliefs in Egypt. He then sent an army to Nubia in 592 BCE to erase all traces of their rule during the reign of the Kushite King Aspelta. This expedition and its destructions are recorded on several victory stelae, especially the Victory Stela of Kalabsha. The Egyptian army “may have gone on to sack Napata, although there is no good evidence to indicate that they did.” This led to the transfer of the Kushite capital farther south at Meroë.
Art and Architecture during the Twenty-fifth Dynasty
Although the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty controlled Ancient Egypt for only 91 years (747–656 BC), it holds an important place in Egyptian history due to the restoration of traditional Egyptian values, culture, art, and architecture.
Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty
The pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty ruled for approximately 91 years in Egypt, from 747 BC to 656 BC.
Piye
Piye (once transliterated as Pankhy or Piankhi; d. 714 BC) was an ancient Kushite king and founder of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled Egypt from 744–714 BC. He ruled from Napata, located deep in Nubia, modern-day Sudan.
Shebitku
Shebitku (Ancient Egyptian: šꜣ-bꜣ-tꜣ-kꜣ, Neo-Assyrian: 𒃻𒉺𒋫𒆪𒀪 šapatakuʾ, Ancient Greek: Σεθῶν Sethōn) also known as Shabataka or Shebitqo and anglicised as Sethos, was the second pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt who ruled from 714 BC – 705 BC, according to the most recent academic research. He was the son of Piye, the founder of this Dynasty. Shebitku’s prenomen or throne name, Djedkare, means “Enduring is the Soul of Re.” Shebitku’s queen was Arty, a daughter of King Piye, according to a fragment of statue JE 49157 of the High Priest of Amun Haremakhet, son of Shabaka, found in the temple of the Goddess Mut in Karnak.
Shabaka
Neferkare Shabaka or Shabako was the third Kushite pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, reigned from 705 to 690 BC.
Taharqa
Taharqa, also spelt Taharka or Taharqo (Hebrew: תִּרְהָקָה, Modern: Tīrhaqa, Tiberian: Tīrhāqā, Manetho’s Tarakos, Strabo’s Tearco), was a pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and qore (king) of the Kingdom of Kush (present-day Sudan), from 690 to 664 BC. He was one of the “Kushite Pharaohs” who ruled Egypt for nearly a century.
Tantamani
Tantamani (Ancient Egyptian: tnwt-jmn, Neo-Assyrian: Rassam cylinder Urdamanee.jpg tanṭammanē, Ancient Greek: Τεμένθης Teménthēs), also known as Tanutamun or Tanwetamani (d. 653 BC) was the ruler of the Kingdom of Kush located in Northern Sudan, and the last pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. His prenomen or royal name was Bakare, which means “Glorious is the Soul of Re.”
The period starting with Kashta and ending with Malonaqen is sometimes called the Napatan Period. The later Kings from the twenty-fifth Dynasty ruled over Napata, Meroe, and Egypt. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Napata during this period, while Meroe was a provincial city. The kings and queens were buried in El-Kurru and Nuri.
Alara, the first known Nubian king and predecessor of Kashta, was not a 25th Dynasty king since he did not control any region of Egypt during his reign. While Piye is viewed as the founder of the 25th Dynasty, some publications may include Kashta, who already held some parts of Upper Egypt. A stela of his was found at Elephantine, and Kashta likely exercised some influence at Thebes (although he did not control it) since he held enough sway to have his daughter Amenirdis I adopted as the next Divine Adoratrice of Amun there.
