The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XXVII, alternatively 27th Dynasty or Dynasty 27), also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy (Old Persian: Mudrāya), was effectively a province (Satrapy) of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 525 BC and 404 BC. It was founded by Cambyses II, the King of Persia, after the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC), the Achaemenid conquest of Egypt, and his subsequent crowning as Pharaoh of Egypt. It was disestablished upon the rebellion and crowning of Amyrtaeus as Pharaoh, and the second period of Achaemenid rule in Egypt occurred under the Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (343–332 BC).
History of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Ancient Egypt
The last Pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty, Psamtik III, was defeated by Cambyses II at the battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile delta in May 525 BC. Cambyses was crowned Pharaoh of Egypt in the summer of that year at the latest, beginning the first period of Persian rule over Egypt (known as the 27th Dynasty). Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia to form the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, with Aryandes as the local satrap (provincial governor).
As Pharaoh of Egypt, Cambyses’ reign saw the fiscal resources of traditional Egyptian temples diminish considerably. One decree, written on papyrus in demotic script, ordered a limitation on resources to all Egyptian temples, excluding Memphis, Heliopolis and Wenkhem (near Abusir). Cambyses left Egypt sometime in early 522 BC, dying en route to Persia, and was nominally succeeded briefly by his younger brother Bardiya. However, contemporary historians suggest Bardiya was actually Gaumata, an impostor, and that the real Bardiya had been murdered some years before by Cambyses, ostensibly out of jealousy. Suspecting this impersonation, Darius I led a coup against Bardiya in September of that year, overthrowing him and being crowned King and Pharaoh the following day.
As the new Persian King, Darius spent much of his time quelling rebellions throughout his empire. Sometime in late 522 BC or early 521 BC, a local Egyptian prince led a rebellion and declared himself Pharaoh Petubastis III. The leading cause of this rebellion is uncertain, but the Ancient Greek military historian Polyaenus states it was oppressive taxation imposed by the satrap Aryandes. Polyaenus further writes that Darius himself marched to Egypt, arriving during a mourning period for the death of the sacred Herald of Ptah bull. Darius proclaimed that he would award a sum of one hundred talents to the man who could produce the next Herald, impressing the Egyptians with his piety such that they flocked en masse to his side, ending the rebellion.
Darius the Great took a greater interest in Egyptian internal affairs than Cambyses. He reportedly codified the laws of Egypt and notably completed the excavation of a canal system at Suez, allowing passage from the Bitter Lakes to the Red Sea, much preferable to the arduous desert land route. This feat allowed Darius to import skilled Egyptian labourers and artisans to construct his palaces in Persia.
The result was a minor brain drain in Egypt due to the loss of these qualified individuals, creating a demonstrable lowering of quality in Egyptian architecture and art from this period. Nevertheless, Darius was more devoted to supporting Egyptian temples than Cambyses, earning himself a reputation for religious tolerance in the region. In 497 BC, during a visit by Darius to Egypt, Aryandes was executed for treason, most likely for attempting to issue his coinage, a visible attempt to distance Egypt from the rest of the Persian Empire. Darius died in 486 BC and was succeeded by Xerxes I.
Upon the accession of Xerxes, Egypt again rebelled, possibly under Psammetichus IV, although different sources dispute that detail. Xerxes quickly quelled the rebellion, installing his brother Achaemenes as satrap. Xerxes ended the privileged status of Egypt held under Darius and increased supply requirements from the country, probably to fund his invasion of Greece. Furthermore, Xerxes promoted the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda at the expense of traditional Egyptian deities and permanently stopped funding Egyptian monuments. Xerxes was murdered in 465 BC by Artabanus, beginning a dynastic struggle that ended with Artaxerxes I being crowned the next King and Pharaoh.
In 460 BC, another major Egyptian rebellion occurred, led by a Libyan chief named Inaros II, whom the Athenians of Greece substantially assisted. Inaros defeated an army led by Achaemenes, killing the satrap in the process, and took Memphis, eventually exerting control over large parts of Egypt. Inaros and his Athenian allies were finally defeated by a Persian army led by General Megabyzus in 454 BC and consequently sent into retreat. Megabyzus promised Inaros no harm would come of him or his followers if he surrendered and submitted to Persian authority, terms Inaros agreed to. Nevertheless, Artaxerxes eventually had Inaros executed, although exactly how and when is a matter of dispute. Artaxerxes died in 424 BC.
Artaxerxes’ successor, Xerxes II, only ruled for forty-five days, being murdered by his brother Sogdianus. Sogdianus was consequently murdered by his brother Ochus, who became Darius II. Darius II ruled from 423 BC to 404 BC, and nearing the end of his reign, a rebellion led by Amyrtaeus took place, potentially beginning as early as 411 BC. In 405 BC, Amyrtaeus, with the help of Cretan mercenaries, expelled the Persians from Memphis, declaring himself Pharaoh the next year and ending the 27th Dynasty. Darius II’s successor, Artaxerxes II (Arses), attempted to begin an expedition to retake Egypt, but he abandoned the effort due to political difficulty with his brother Cyrus the Younger. Artaxerxes II was still recognized as the rightful Pharaoh in some parts of Egypt as late as 401 BC. However, his sluggish response to the situation allowed Egypt to solidify its independence.
During the period of independent rule, three indigenous dynasties reigned: the 28th, 29th, and 30th dynasties. Artaxerxes III (358 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for a brief second period (343 BC), called the 31st Dynasty of Egypt.
The Achaemenid rule over Egypt was often viewed as weak or oppressive. H. P. Colburn’s (2019) analyses suggest that the Achaemenid legacy was significant, and the Egyptians had various experiences in this period.
Pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty
The pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty ruled for approximately 121 years, from 525 BC to 404 BC. Rulers with violet backgrounds were native Egyptian pharaohs who rebelled against the Achaemenid rule.
Cambyses II
Cambyses II (Old Persian: 𐎣𐎲𐎢𐎪𐎡𐎹 Kabūjiya) was the second King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 530 to 522 BC. He was the son and successor of Cyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC), and his mother was Cassandane.
Bardiya
Bardiya (Old Persian: 𐎲𐎼𐎮𐎡𐎹 Bạrdiya; Ancient Greek: Σμέρδις Smérdis; possibly died 522 BC), also named as Tanyoxarces (Ancient Greek: Τανυοξάρκης Tanuoxárkēs) by Ctesias, was a son of Cyrus the Great and the younger brother of Cambyses II, both Persian kings. There are sharply divided views on his life. Bardiya either ruled the Achaemenid Empire for a few months in 522 BC or was impersonated by a magus called Gaumāta (Old Persian: 𐎥𐎢𐎶𐎠𐎫), whose name is given by Ctesias as Sphendadates (Old Persian: Spantadātaʰ; Ancient Greek: Σφενδαδάτης Sphendadátēs) until he was toppled by Darius the Great.
Petubastis III
Seheruibre Padibastet (Ancient Egyptian: shrw-jb-rꜥ pꜣ-dj-bstt), better known by his Hellenised name Petubastis III (or IV, depending on the scholars) was a native ancient Egyptian ruler (ruled c. 522 – 520 BC), who revolted against Persian rule.
Darius the Great
Darius I (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavaʰuš; Greek: Δαρεῖος Dareios; c. 550 – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was a Persian ruler who served as the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until he died in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its territorial peak when it included much of Western Asia, parts of the Balkans (Thrace–Macedonia and Paeonia) and the Caucasus, most of the Black Sea’s coastal regions, Central Asia, the Indus Valley in the far east, and portions of North Africa and Northeast Africa including Egypt (Mudrâya), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan.
Psammetichus IV
Psammetichus IV (Psamtik IV) is a proposed ancient Egyptian ruler who lived during the First Persian Period (the 27th Dynasty).
Xerxes I
Xerxes I (Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Xšayār̥šā; Greek: Ξέρξης; c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC), and his mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Great (r. 550–530 BC), the founder of the Achaemenid empire. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard.
Artabanus of Persia
Artabanus of Persia (or Artabanus the Hyrcanian; Ancient Greek: Ἀρτάβανος) was a Persian political figure during the Achaemenid dynasty who was reportedly Regent of Persia for a few months (465 BC – 464 BC).
Artaxerxes I
Artaxerxes I (/ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz/, Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 Artaxšaçāʰ; Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης) was the fifth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, from 465 to 424 BC. He was the third son of Xerxes I.
Xerxes II
Xerxes II (/ˈzɜːrksiːz/; Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Xšayār̥šā; Ancient Greek: Ξέρξης Xérxēs; died 424 BC) was a Persian king who was very briefly a ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, as the son and successor of Artaxerxes I.
Sogdianus
Sogdianus (/ˌsɔːɡdiˈeɪnəs/ or /ˌsɒɡdiˈeɪnəs/; Greek: Σογδιανὸς Sogdianos) was briefly a ruler of the Achaemenid Empire for a period in 424–423 BC. His short rule—lasting not much more than six months—and the little recognition of his kingdom are known primarily from the writings of Ctesias, who is known to be unreliable. He was reportedly an illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I by his concubine Alogyne of Babylon.
Darius II
Darius II (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavaʰuš; Greek: Δαρεῖος Dareios), also known by his given name Ochus (Ὦχος Ochos), was King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 423 BC to 405 or 404 BC.
Satraps of the 27th Dynasty
Aryandes
Aryandes (Old Iranian: Aryavanda or Arvanta, Ancient Greek: Ἀρυάνδης) was the first Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt between 525 BCE and 496 BCE, during the early 27th Dynasty of Egypt.
Pherendates
Pherendates (Old Persian: *Farnadātaʰ; Ancient Greek: Φερενδάτης Pherendā́tēs) was an Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt in the early 5th century BCE, at the time of the Achaemenid 27th Dynasty of Egypt.
Achaemenes
Achaemenes (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁 Haxāmaniš; Ancient Greek: Ἀχαιμένης Akhaiménēs, also incorrectly called Achaemenides by Ctesias) was an Achaemenid general and satrap of ancient Egypt during the early 5th century BC, at the time of the 27th Dynasty of Egypt.
Arsames
Arsames (also called Sarsamas and Arxanes, from Old Persian Aršāma) was an Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt during the 5th century BC, during the 27th Dynasty of Egypt.
